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"The very ink with which all history is written,
is merely fluid prejudice."
-Mark
Twain
It
is obvious that many of the Christian denotations
derived from 'paganus' are still prominently used
today. However, a new interpretation has come to
the forefront of modern western society. This interpretation
called (Neo)-paganism is of a highly complex nature
that even among its' followers, there seems to be
little mutual understanding. Despite this, it is
this interpretation I will attempt to explain. For
brevity sake, the scope of this article is limited
to those "Western Civilizations", that
developed out of Europe. There is no denying the
facts that there are other ancient religions in
other parts of world, which by the Christian definition,
are pagan. However, its' members would not necessarily
identify with this term.
Pagan1
noun -s [ME, fr. LL paganus, fr.
L, civilian, country dweller, fr. paganus,
adj., of the country, fr. pagus country,
village, district; akin to L pangere to
fix, fasten, pacisei to agree, contract
-more at Pact] 1: heathen
1; especially a follower of a polytheistic
religion (as in ancient Rome) 2:
one that has little or no religion and that is
marked by a frank delight in and uninhibited seeking
after sensual pleasure and material goods :
an unrestrained irreligious hedonist and materialist
<is a ~ of the decadence> takes
the world with exquisite nonchalance and prefers
a well-ordered dinner to a dissertation on the
immortality of the soul -T.L. Peacock> pagan2
adjective : of, relating to, or having
the characteristics of pagans : heathenish
<~ customs> <represents the
earthy, ~ acceptance of life in all its sensual
vulgarity -R.M. Kain> <the ~ concept
of death and oblivion as the natural end of life
-Cyril Connolly> --paganly
adverb. paganism noun
-s [ME paganysme, fr. LL paganismus,
fr. paganus pagan + L -ismus -ism]
1a: pagan beliefs or practices
: heathenism <its conflict with modern
~ --C.J.C. Bergendoff> <the rites of ~>
<powers with which they had ascribed to the
gods of ~ --K.S. Latourette> b:
a particular pagan religion <ancient ~s
were all polytheistic, with dozens of gods arranged
in complex pantheons -John Bright born 1908>
2: the quality or state of being
a pagan (as in attitude or outlook) <the
natural joyous ~ of the Greeks -Hunter Mead>.
[1]
To
understand the present one should understand its
realization, and so I begin with a bit of historical
background.
Ancient
Paganism
When changes happen in history, they usually begin
in the cities and towns. This is attributed to the
greater interaction with outside cultures, usually
through trade and war. Therefore, it is not surprising
that there existed a cultural and social distinction
between city and country inhabitants. Ancient Rome
is one such embodiment; a great conquering nation
that assimilated many cultural ideas and philosophies.
This amalgamation was so significant that eventually
what was practiced in the Roman cities (urbs) no
longer resembled what was practiced in the countryside
(pagus). The word, pagus, incorporated this social
distinction both in its agrarian and non-combatant
status. Whether or not, these country dwellers ever
identified with the term is doubtful.
Enter
the Christians --
Until
now, Romans got along with their "conquered
religions" either by assimilating or ignoring
them. So, when the Romans come into contact with
Judaic monotheism, they pretty much ignored it.
As a non-invasive religion, Judaism posed little
threat to the Romans. In contrast, Christianity
was far more intrusive and prolific. Unlike Judaism
where you were born into the faith, Christianity
accepted new members through conversion. This did
not go over well with the Romans to say the least.
There was no room for assimilation or compromise
because Christianity was the antithesis to Roman's
polytheistic philosophy. This new religion was far
more detrimental than any other religion Rome had
ever come across. Rome was right to worry, for many
Romans did convert. It was these converts who ultimately
changed the meaning of paganus from country dweller
to polytheistic heathen. It was these selfsame converts,
along with other historical factors, that finally
changed the power base of Rome.
Christian
Rome --
The
real Christian versus Pagan dichotomy probably started
around 340 AD when the first "anti pagan"
laws began to take hold. The Christian Emperor,
Constantius II prohibited public pagan worship on
pain of death. Although, there was a brief respite
for "pagans" under the subsequent pagan
ruler Julian, the ruling power eventually reverted
to Christianity, where it remained until 381 when
the anti-pagan laws are firmly re-established in
the Imperatoris
Theodosiani Codex. There was now zero tolerance
for "paganism" in the Roman Empire and
Christianity was declared the only permissible faith.[2]
The "pagan" persecutions begin, and by
415 AD pagans are banned from Military and Civic
positions. The power base now lies firmly in the
hands of the Christians.
From
the 4th century onward, pagan becomes a pejorative
term to indicate one who is not Christian. The word
mutated and adapted throughout Christian history
to what now resides in the dictionaries. Quite often
you will see heathen used as a synonym for pagan.
Interestingly enough, the Gothic haiþnô
from which we derive the word heathen is thought
to have followed a similar path of semantic development
as that of paganus. Heathen is another agrarian
term whose meaning changed from "dweller on
the heath" to a non-Christian.
The
way I see it; pagan was used as a prejudicial classification
both before and after the introduction of Christianity
and at no time, was it ever a religion (in and of
itself). That is until, 1,600 years later...
Post
Paganism
In the Webster dictionary under paganism, there
is a line that, if taken out of context, may give
a clue to what Neo-Paganism means today. The line
reads: "state of being -- as in attitude
or outlook". The question is -- what outlook
and what attitude?
Neopaganism
was and still is a religious movement that counters
many of the ideologies and beliefs within society's
mainstream religions. As part of the larger sixties
Hippie Counterculture, Neopaganism incorporates
many of their anti-establishment and liberal attitudes.
Perhaps, this is why the framework of their belief
systems or traditions is so polymorphic; making
it virtually impossible to find a single unified
religious composite. For this reason, many do not
consider Neopaganism a religion. Nevertheless, there
are those who follow a broader interpretation of
religion and who would define it as such.
Historical
Inputs
An assortment of historical developments
needed to come together in order for Neopaganism
to evolve.
- The
Age of Philosophy (BCE) - This was the time
of speculative thought, where man studied the
meaning and justification of beliefs, ethics,
reality and all aspects of life. For more on
the great thinkers of our time visit: Biographies.
- The
Medieval Cruasdes - Ironically, it was the
Crusader who re-introduced pagan concepts to
the Christendom. They brought back from their
travels, an assortment of literary subjects
covering Gnosticism, Jewish Mysticism, and the
ancient works of the Greek and Roman Philosophers.
Religious orders began to form based on these
new ideas causing the Church to instigate their
own "internal crusades against such heresy"
called The Inquisitions.
- Renaissance
- During the 15th century, a pivotal shift in
thinking set in motion a whole series of changes
that would reverberate throughout history. When
pagan philosophies like, rationalism, individualism,
humanism and nationalism were once again being
discussed and when people started looking to
themselves, instead of the Church for answers.
- Enlightenment
Era - With the Bible no longer being the source
of all knowledge, a need to better understand
the world arose. Human beings began to explore
nature through science and rationalism. Enlightenment
was the time for freedom of thought and the
age of reason.
- Age
of Romanticism - Interest in other cultures
was emerging. New ideologies were being introduced
into Europe and America from abroad. Most importantly
of these, was the introduction to Oriental philosophy.
- The
Spiritualism Movement --Interest in other cultures
continued to flourish, especially in the form
of archeology and anthropology. One culture
in particular was of great interest -Ancient
Egypt. It provided a great source information
for those interested in witchcraft, mysticism,
and other esoteric practices.
Many of the resources used in Neopaganism came
from this movement. Aradia, Gospel of the
Witches by Charles G. Leland, The Golden
Bough, by Sir James Frazer, and Witch-Cult
in Western Europe by Margaret Murray are
the best known.[3] Other important authors included,
but not limited to, are Eiphas Levi, Gerald Gardner,
Aleister Crowley,and A.E. Waite. A great site
for the listing of "the who's who" and
their writings can be found at Primary
Texts.
-
The
Freedom Movements -The 1960's was a very turbulent
time with its many Social Movements. Freedom
of speech, race and religion was preached and
liberal belief systems, which exceed the social,
political and moral norms are practiced. It
is around this time that the term "Neopagan"
is first applied by Oberon Zell to the religious
counter-culture movement and their individualistic
belief systems.[4]
-
The
New Age Movement - A broad movement that
combines the metaphysical and spiritual approach
with world issues like health, science, globalization
and environmentalism. The New Age Movement popularizes
such practices like holistic healing, hatha
yoga, inner channeling, and alternative medicine.
Belief
Structure
In Neopaganism, traditions are often centered
on a particular culture and/or folkloric practice.
The majority of the Neopagan traditions focus on
those ancient cultures in Europe and Middle East
that were displaced by the Abrahamic religions.
However, traditions based on other indigenous cultures
like Eastern, Native America and African are becoming
popular. Despite the differing beliefs and practices
among the traditions, there are some common identifiable
aspects to Neopaganism.
- Individualism:
Non-authoritarian - The is no centralized
organization that governs Neopaganism. Emphasis
is placed on the return to the simpler direct
relationship between the individual and their
divine. A practice long lost in many hierarchical
institutionalized religions. What structuralization
that does exist in Neopaganism is purely social.
Non-dogmatic - There is no sacred book,
tenet or doctrine. Within each tradition, there
may exist a writ of their beliefs and tenets
but this is not a universal dogma.
- Humanism
-
Focus is on reconnecting with life; living in
the here and now, no matter what the belief
structure.
- Spiritual
anarchism
- There is no reward or punishment just consequences.
The individual is accountable for his/her actions.
Unlike mainstream religions, there is no atonement
or salvation needed for redemption for there
is no sin. This is not to say there is no socially
accepted concept of "right" and "wrong".
- Nature
- Nature plays an important role albeit in varying
degrees from sacred worship to harmonious interaction.
- Energy
- A concept of an unseen "energy"
is prevalent throughout Neopaganism. However,
its utilization varies among the denominations.
This energy is primarily used for empowerment,
self-realization and magic. Additionally, it
may be viewed holistically as a singular divine
entity. It has varies names: the power, primal
force, cosmic energy, universal force, life
force, aura, spirit and manna.
Labels
It is a regular quagmire when it comes
to identifying what's what in Neopaganism. While
some labels are self explanatory others can cause
confusion and contention. Much of this is attributed
to misinformation, interpretation of history and
personal opinion.
- Traditional
and Eclectic - Often used when describing
the antiquity factor as well as the source.
Usually the term traditional is applied to those
denominations that adhere strictly to one distinct
ancient culture as oppose to a mixture or eclectic.
However, the term traditional has been used
to denote those early eclectic orders and secret
societies from the Spiritualism Movement of
the 19th century, making the use of the term
'traditional' ambiguous.
- Modern
and Neo- Commonly used for those spiritual
constructs formed in the later half of the 20th
century, even though it accurately defines all
re-constructed traditions in the Post Christian
Era.
- Solitaire
- A designation used to describe what seems
to be the preferred method of practice -solitary.
For those who prefer to practice in groups can
do so in covens, brotherhoods, orders, societies,
families and churches.
- Family
is used to describe those traditions with beliefs
and practices that have been handed down within
the family generations. However, there is some
skepticism within the Neopagan community for
those who claim their family tradition is older
than three generations.
- Paganism
and Neopaganism - Academically, paganism
is used to refer to the genre of polytheistic
religions that existed before the Christian
Era, while Neopaganism is for the later re-constructions
in the Post Christian Era. Socially, Paganism
and Neopaganism are often used synonymously.
The general consensus being, that Paganism has
a more holistic connotation while Neopagan is
more deterministic. <Personally
~ I put no import on one or the other, except
that they
both should be capitalized when referring
to the religion or the movement. Looking at
it from a historical perspective, they are both
modern religions.>
Hybrids
Hybrids, for a lack of a better term, are
a combination of two already existing religions
but they are not exactly traditions. Still, many
will classify them under (Neo)Paganism because one
of the two religions is polytheistic. Due to this
syncretic nature, hybrids do not necessarily share
all the characteristics of other Neopagan groups.
Vodoun, Santeria and Candomble are examples where
Roman Catholicism mixed with African and other indigenous
religions as a result of slavery.
Divinity
At first glance, one would assume that
Neopagans practice polytheism, end of story. This
is not necessarily the case. It is far more complicated
than that. The heterogeneous nature of Neopaganism
allows for all spiritual attitudes towards divinity.
Add to this the extensive list of philosophical
outlooks and the permutations are endless. A better
way of viewing Neopaganism is that it is "poly-theological".
Here is a sampling of a few relational attitudes.
- New
Polytheism - The deities are just Jungian
archetypes created by human need. The deities
are but symbols.
- Polytheism
- This is the belief and worship of multiple
deities. These deities are often sentient personification
an non-sentient entity(s), which are beyond
human comprehension. This personification is
known as anthropomorphism.
- Duotheism
- The polarity of natural forces are expressed
in the deities, often a masculine—feminine
structure. However, they do not necessarily
always represent opposites; they can indicate
harmony and balance.
- Pantheism
- The belief that the entire universe is a divine
spiritual unity, and humans are a part of this
divine universe.
- Agnostic
Pantheism - The universe is revered but
not from transcendental divine aspect. This
is often equated to Scientific
Pantheism.
- Animism
- All things in nature have a distinct spirit
and when this extends to inanimate matter, it
is called Hylozoism.
Personal
Thoughts - If we look throughout history, we would
see that the underlying principle of the term —pagan,
has always been to indicate "otherness".
Neopagans have taken this "pagan" outlook,
and made it their own. In their self-awareness and
spiritual connection to this concept, which membership
is recognized and embraced, they have created a religion.
What was once a derogatory term, is now a positive
word reclaimed by those who wish to follow the other
alternative to the orthodox religions and in particular
-Christianity.
As I see it, the importance of Paganism does not lie
in the actually "re-construction" or even
the relational attitude of worship. ~ Paganism is
about linking to a past set of values long forgotten
and lost in many of today's religions.
Notes:
1. Webster's Third New International Dictionary
of the English Language Unabridged Edition,
Volume II
2. A History of Pagan Europe, Prudence
Jones and Nigel Pennick, 1995 pg.71
3. Many of the theories presented in these early
anthropological works have since been challenge
as to their accuracy.
4. The word itself was not new. Prior to this, the
term, neo-pagan, had been used to describe artist
and poets during the Pre-Raphaelite movement.
Encyclopedia
of Occultism & Parapsychology 4th ed. Vol.2
A History of Witchcraft, Jeffrey B. Russell
Drawing Down the Moon, Margot Adler
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